(This page details the evolution of literary theory and criticism as different historical periods introduced new ideas and methodology. In order to see some of the most influential movements in chronological order, see the timeline page.)
Literary criticism is the practice of commenting on the qualities and characteristics of a literary work, usually through a particular lens or theory. Because people have been discussing works of literature as long as literature has existed, it is difficult to determine when literary criticism as a discipline began. The earliest written work considered to deal with literary criticism is Aristotle's Poetics, which was published in the 4th century BCE--which leads historians to begin examining literary criticism in the Classical Period.
Classical Period (5th-4th Century BCE) Most of the works in this period focus on literary theory, the more abstract side of literary study. Therefore, the works look at the nature of the literature they are examining and suggest methods of analyzing them. Since most of this literary activity was occurring in Greece, Aristotle and Plato's writings on poetry and drama are the most salient examples. Aristotle provided much of the terminology used in literary theory and criticism today, and in many circles he is considered one of the "fathers" of literary criticism.
With the exception of Sage Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra, which is believed to have been written between 200 BCE and 200 CE in Classical India, literary criticism scholarship remains scarce until the Middle Ages.
Medieval Period (5th-15th Century CE) Most literary criticism written during the Middle Ages focused on religious literature, which is why some important concepts from religious study became part of literary theory. For example, Jewish tradition has always included the study of Torah, which follows analytical principles known as hermeneutics. These principles guide the different ways one can approach a text in order to interpret its contents, and many of them have become part of literary criticism.
Due to the religious orientation of most of the literary criticism in this period, some of the most important works belong to saints Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas.
Renaissance Period (14th-17th Century CE) As it did in many other domains, the Renaissance brought a return to Classical ideas and texts. For example, Aristotle's Poetics was translated into Latin and commented upon by various authors, which cemented the terminology he developed. Moreover, the emphasis on literature as an essential part of culture provided literary critics with a way to approach literature: looking at its cultural impact and significance.
The work of Lodovico Castelvetro is representative of this periyto literary criticism. Firstly, its emphasis on using one's own intellect to examine things empowered literary critics to apply new and inventive "lenses" to the works they studied. Secondly, it increased people's access to reading materials due to industrialization--since books were no longer rare and prohibitively expensive, people of various social classes were able to become literate and thus consume literature. Finally, periodicals such as journals and newspapers grew in popularity during this period, which aided in the spread of literary criticism as a popular discipline.
Many of the important writers of this period also contributed to literary criticism, among them Alexander Pope with An Essay on Criticism and Mary Wollstonecraft with A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.
Romantic Period (Late 18th Century-Early 19th Century CE) The Romantic Period's focus on literature as a tool to elevate the mundane to sublime had a strong influence of literary criticism as well as literature itself. Romantics praised literature for its aesthetic as well as content, particularly in England. Conversely, German Romanticism valued wit and inventiveness, and some of their more fragmented literature served as a precursor to several modern movements.
Once again, many important authors of this period also wrote criticism, among them Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Stuart Mill, Edgar Allan Poe, and Leo Tolstoy.
New Criticism (Mid-20th Century CE-Present) Despite the lasting impact of the previous eras, most of the current literary theory and criticism tools are derived from the Formalism movement that became known as New Criticism in the English-speaking world. This type of criticism ignores the author (and often the context of the work) and focuses on close readings of the text itself in order to find meaning. An unintended consequence of this shift in focus was that, despite being influenced by literary theory, most modern literary critics do not write about the theory and simply focus on the analysis and criticism of the text.
While William Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley are considered the most important authors for New Criticism itself, many others can be considered New Critics because the theories they established are based on the same idea of looking only at the text. Some of the most influential works following New Criticism have been those by Ferdinand de Saussure, Simone de Beauvoir, Jean-Paul Sartre and Claude Levi-Strauss--which highlights the importance of French authors and philosophy in modern criticism. Freud's theories have also affected readings of various texts, particularly within Classical and Neoclassical literature.